Technology in america: a brief history pdf download

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Tags Congress. II No. It is within the above context that this paper attempts to examine the history of science and technology in the Philippines. Rather than focusing simply on a straight chronology of events, it seeks to interpret and analyze the interdependent effects of geography, colonial trade, economic and educational policies and socio-cultural factors in shaping the evolution of present Philippine science and technology.

Scientific activity centers on research, the end result of which is the discovery or production of new knowledge. In comparison, technology has often been understood as the "systematic knowledge of the industrial arts. In modern times, however, the progress of science and technology have become intimately linked together. Many scientific discoveries have been facilitated by the development of new technology. New scientific knowledge in turn has often led to further refinement of existing technology or the invention of entirely new ones.

New York: Harper and Row, , chap. Freeman, "Economics of Research and Development. Precolonial Science and Technology There is a very little reliable written information about Philippine society, culture and technology before the arrival of the Spaniards in According to these sources, there were numerous, scattered, thriving, relatively self-sufficient and autonomous communities long before the Spaniards arrived.

The early Filipinos had attained a generally simple level of technological development, compared with those of the Chinese and Japanese, but this was sufficient for their needs at that period of time.

For about 40, years, they made simple tools or weapons of stone flakes but eventually developed techniques for sawing, drilling and polishing hard stones. By about 3, B. The manufacture of pottery subsequently became well developed and flourished for about 2, years until it came into competition with imported Chinese porcelain.

Thus over time pottery making declined. What has survived of this ancient technology is the lowest level, i. The iron age is considered to have lasted from the second or third century B. Excavations of Philippine graves and work sites have yielded iron slags. He points out questionable documents which have been the basis for information about this period and which were popularized in Philippines History textbooks, including theories that have been mistaken for facts.

I, pp. But it appears that the iron industry, like the manufacture of pottery, did not survive the competition with imported cast iron from Sarawak and much later, from China. Lowland rice was cultivated in diked fields, and in the interior mountain regions as in the Cordillera, in terraced fields which utilized spring water.

By the tenth century A. In fact, the early Spanish chroniclers took note of the refined plank-built warship called caracoa. These boats were well suited for inter-island trade raids. The Spaniards later utilized Filipino expertise in boat-building and seamanship to fight the raiding Dutch, Portuguese, Muslims and the Chinese pirate Limahong as well as to build and man the galleons that sailed to Mexico.

Chinese records with have now been translated contain a lot of references to the Philippines. These indicate that regular trade relations between the two countries had been well established during the tenth to the fifteenth centuries. Archaeological findings in various parts of the archipelago of Chinese porcelains made during this period support this contention.

The most frequently cited Chinese account in Philippine history textbooks is that of Chao Ju-Kua in He described the communities and trading activities in the islands of Ma-i Mindoro and San-hsu literally three islands which present-day historians think refer to the group of Palawan and Calamian Islands.

These were practically the same commodities of trade between the islands and China which the first Spanish colonial officials recorded when they came to the Philippines more than two centuries later. This trade seems to have antedated those with the Chinese. By the time the Spaniards reached the archipelago, these trade relations had been firmly established such that the alliance between the rulers of manila and Brunei had become strengthened by marriage. There have also been some references by early travelers during the precolonial period to trade relations between Japan and the Philippines.

To date however, Philippine historians have not found any prehispanic references to the Philippines in Japanese literature of the period. Scott, in Prehispanic Source Materials Regidor y Jurado and J. Warren T. Scott in Prehispanic Source Materials By the time the Spaniards came to colonies the Philippines in , they found many scattered, autonomous village communities called barangays all over the archipelago.

These were kinship groups or social units rather than political units. They were essentially subsistence economies producing mainly what they needed. These communities exhibited uneven technological development.

Settlements along the coastal areas which had been exposed to foreign trade and cultural contacts such as Manila, Mindoro, Cebu, Southern Mindanao and Sulu, seem to have attained a more sophisticated technology. In , for example, the Spaniards found the town of Mindoro "fortified by a stone wall over fourteen feet thick," and defended by armed Moros -- "bowmen, lancers, and some gunners, linstocks in hand.

They found Manila similarly defended by a palisade along its front with pieces of artillery at its gate. The house of Raja Soliman which was burned down by Spaniards reportedly contained valuable articles of trade -- "money, copper, iron, porcelain, blankets, wax, cotton and wooden vats full of brandy. Some small and large cannon had just begun. There were the clay and wax moulds, the largest of which was for a cannon seventeen feet long, resembling a culverin The Spanish colonizers noted that all over the islands, Filipinos were growing rice, vegetables and cotton; raising swine, goats and fowls; making wine, vinegar and salt; weaving cloth and producing beeswax and honey.

The Filipinos were also mining gold in such places as Panay, Mindoro and Bicol. They wore colorful clothes, made their own gold jewelry and even filled their teeth with gold. Their houses were made of wood or bamboo and nipa. They had their own system of writing, 18 and weights and measures. Some communities had become renowned for their plank-built boats. They had no calendar but counted the years by moons and from one harvest to another.

In the interior and mountain settlements, many Filipinos were still living as hunters. They gathered forest products to trade with the lowland and coastal settlements. The Spaniards found no temples or places of worship.

Although the Filipinos knew how to read and write in their own system, this was mainly used for messages and letters. They seem not to have developed a written literary tradition at that time.

Because of the abundance of natural resources, a benign environment and generally sparse population, there seemed to have been little pressure for invention and innovation among the early Filipinos. As governor Francisco de Sande observed in , the Filipinos do not understand any kind of work, unless it be to do something actually necessary -- such as to build their houses, which are made of stakes after their fashion; to fish, according to their method; to row, and perform the duties of sailors; and to cultivate the land The Spaniards established schools, hospitals and started scientific research and these had important consequences for the rise of the country's professions.

But the direction and pace of development of science and technology were greatly shaped by the role of the religious orders in the conquest and colonization of the archipelago and by economic and trade adopted by the colonial government. The interaction of these forces and the resulting socio-economic and political changes must, therefore, be analyzed in presenting a history of science and technology in the Philippines.

Spanish conquest and the colonization of the archipelago was greatly facilitated by the adoption of an essentially religious strategy which had earlier been successfully used in Latin America. Known as reduccion, it required the consolidation of the far-flung, scattered barangay communities into fewer, larger and more compact settlements within the hearing distance of the church bells.

This was a necessary response to the initial shortage of Spanish missionaries in the Philippines. This policy was carried out by a combination of religious conversion and military force. The net result of reduccion was the creation of towns and the foundation of the present system of local government. The precolonial ruling class, the datus and their hereditary successors, were adopted by the Spanish colonial government into this new system to serve as the heads of the lowest level of local government; i.

The colonial authorities found the new set-up expeditious for establishing centralized political control over the archipelago -- for the imposition and collection of the tribute tax, enforcement of compulsory labor services among the native Filipinos, and implementation of the compulsory sale of local products to the government. The Filipinos naturally resisted reduccion as it took them away from their rice fields, the streams and the forests which were their traditional sources of livelihood and also subjected them to the onerous economic exactions by the colonial government.

Thus the first century of Spanish rule brought about serious socio-economic dislocation and a decline kin agricultural production and traditional crafts in many places. In the region surrounding the walled city of Manila, Filipinos migrated from their barangays to the city in order to serve in the convents and thus avoid the compulsory labor services in the shipyards and forests.

They also influenced the development of technology and promotion of scientific research. Cushner, S. Various decrees were issued in Spain calling for the establishment of a school system in the colony but these were not effectively carried out.

Owing to the dearth of qualified teachers, textbooks and other instructional materials, primary instruction was mainly religious education. Higher education was provided by schools set up by the different religious orders in the urban centers, most of them in Manila.

Courses leading to the B. Clark Co. XLV, pp. The Colegio de San Ignacio prospered and was elevated to the rank of a royal and pontifical university in The Colegio de San Jose was seized by the Crown upon the expulsion of the jesuits and later became the medical and pharmacy departments of the University of Santo Tomas. The Ateneo de manila is now a University run by the Jesuits. Alzona, op. See Alzon, op.

Throughout the Spanish regime, the royal and pontifical University of Santo Tomas remained as the highest institution of learning. In , the schools of medicine and pharmacy were opened.

From to , the University of Snato Tomas granted the degree of Licenciado en Medicina to 62 graduates. The study of pharmacy consisted of a preparatory course with subjects in natural history and general chemistry and five years of studies in subjects such as pharmaceutical operations at the school of pharmacy. At the end of this period of the degree of Bachiller en Farmacia was granted.

The degree of licentiate in pharmacy, which was equivalent to a master's degree, was granted after two years of practice in a pharmacy, one lof which could be taken simultaneously with the academic courses after the second year course of study.

In , the university granted the bachelor's degree in pharmacy to its first six graduates in the school of pharmacy. Among them was Leon Ma. Guerrero, who is usually referred to as the "Father of Philippine Pharmacy" becuase of his extensive work on the medicinal plants of the Philippines and their uses. It remained open until when its work was taken over by the Jesuit University of San Ignacio which was closed in See ibid. Tomas is based on an account written by Fray E.

III Washington, D. See Miguel Ma. Valera, S. There were no schools offering engineering at that time. The few who studied engineering had to go to Europe.

There was a Nautical School created on 1 January which offered a four-year course of study for the profession of pilot of merchant marine that included subjects as arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, hydrography, meteorology, navigation and pilotage.

The School was designed to provide theoretical and practical education of skilled farmers and overseers and to promote agricultural development in the Philippines by means of observation, experiment and investigation. The professors in the School were agricultural engineers. The School was financed by the government but it appears that its direction was also left to the priests. The certificates of completion of the course were awarded by the university of Santo Tomas or the Ateneo Municipal.

It seems that the School was not successful as Filipinos did not show much inclination for industrial pursuits. It provided for the establishment of a system of elementary, secondary and collegiate schools, teacher-training schools, and called for government supervision of these schools.

The full implementation of this decree, however, was interrupted by the coming of the Americans in For this reason, only the more daring and persevering students were able to undertake advantaged studies. The attitude of the Spanish friars towards the study of the sciences and medicine was even more discouraging.

As one Rector of the Univesity of Santo Tomas in the s said: "Medicine and the natural sciences are 32 Blair and Robertson, op. The required course of study included subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural history, agriculture, topography, linear and topography drawing, etc.

Those who did were poorly trained when compared with those who had gone to European universities. Laboratory equipment was limited and only displayed for visitors to see. There was little or no training in scientific research. In the University of Santo Tomas This was because the colonial government preferred to appoint Spanish and other European-trained professionals to 35 Quoted in James A.

Butnam's Sons, p. At the start of the American regime, a German physician of Manila submitted a report to the authorities on the conditions at UST's medical college. The report mentions, among others, its lack of library facilities, the use of outdated textbooks some published in , that no female cadaver had ever been dissected and the anatomy course was a "farce", that most graduates "never had attended even one case of confinement or seen a case of laparotomy" and that bacteriology had been introduced only since the American occupation and "was still taught without microscopes!

With the opening of the Suez Canal in and the consequent ease in travel and communications that it brought about, the liberal ideas and scientific knowledge of the West also reached the Philippines. The prosperity that resulted from increased commerce between the Philippines and the rest of the world enabled Filipino students to go to Europe for professional advanced studies.

It was this group of students which set up the Propaganda Movement in Europe that eventually led to the Philippine revolution against Spain. The religious orders provided most of the teaching force and institutions of learning in the colony. This was similar to the situation that had earlier prevailed in Europe where they had come from during the medieval ages.

Inevitably, members of the religious orders also took the lead in technological innovation and scientific research. This involvement invariably arose from their need to provide for basic necessities as they went around the archipelago to perform their missionary work of propagating the Catholic faith and to finance the colleges, hospitals and orphanages that they had established.

The Spaniards introduced the technology of town planning and building with stones, brick and tiles. In may places, the religious such as Bishop Salazar in Manila personally led in 38 Alzona, op. Apolinario Mabini wrote: "All the departments and provincial governments were staffed with peninsular Spaniards personnel unfamiliar with the country and relieved every time there was a cabinet change in Madrid.